Pulmonary Drug Delivery Devices Market Size, Share and Forecast 2032

Market Overview:

The Pulmonary Drug Delivery Devices Market size was valued at USD 43,091.3 million in 2018 to USD 54,865.9 million in 2024 and is anticipated to reach USD 77,432.5 million by 2032, at a CAGR of 4.43% during the forecast period.

The pulmonary drug delivery devices market is experiencing sustained growth due to the rising global prevalence of respiratory diseases such as asthma, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), cystic fibrosis, and allergic rhinitis. These conditions are driven by factors including air pollution, smoking, occupational hazards, and aging populations. The increasing adoption of user-friendly, portable, and smart drug delivery devices is enhancing patient adherence to treatment protocols and improving outcomes. Technological advancements, particularly in dry powder inhalers (DPIs), metered-dose inhalers (MDIs), and vibrating mesh nebulizers, are significantly improving drug deposition efficiency and ease of use. Additionally, the trend toward self-administered and home-based care, especially after the COVID-19 pandemic, has accelerated the demand for compact and remote-enabled pulmonary drug delivery solutions. Investments in research and development, particularly around digital inhalers and targeted drug delivery, continue to expand therapeutic applications, including for systemic diseases.

North America holds the largest share of the pulmonary drug delivery devices market, driven by a high burden of respiratory diseases, established healthcare infrastructure, and early adoption of innovative medical technologies. The United States leads the regional market due to favorable reimbursement policies and strong demand for digital inhalers and smart nebulizers. Europe follows closely, supported by growing awareness of respiratory health, rising healthcare expenditures, and regulatory support for advanced drug delivery methods. Countries like Germany, the U.K., and France are leading contributors to regional revenue. Asia-Pacific is expected to witness the fastest growth over the forecast period, propelled by urbanization, increasing air pollution levels, and improved access to healthcare in countries such as China, India, and Japan. Latin America, the Middle East, and Africa represent emerging markets with untapped potential, where increasing healthcare awareness and gradual infrastructure development are laying the foundation for long-term growth.

Market Insights

• The Pulmonary Drug Delivery Devices Market was valued at USD 54,865.9 million in 2024 and is projected to reach USD 77,432.5 million by 2032, growing at a CAGR of 4.43% during the forecast period.
• Rising prevalence of respiratory diseases such as asthma, COPD, and cystic fibrosis is driving steady demand for inhalers, nebulizers, and portable pulmonary drug delivery systems.
• Technological advancements in dry powder inhalers (DPIs), metered dose inhalers (MDIs), and mesh nebulizers are improving drug delivery efficiency and patient usability.
• Home-based care is gaining momentum, accelerating the demand for self-administered, lightweight, and digitally connected inhalation devices across all age groups.
• Government reimbursement programs and fast-track regulatory approvals in regions like North America and Europe are encouraging innovation and expanding patient access.
• Device misuse and patient non-compliance remain key challenges, particularly in populations with low health literacy and limited access to healthcare education.
• North America holds the largest market share, while Asia-Pacific is expected to witness the fastest growth, driven by urbanization, pollution, and improved healthcare infrastructure.

Market Drivers:

Rising Prevalence of Respiratory Diseases Increases Demand for Targeted Pulmonary Therapies

The Pulmonary Drug Delivery Devices Market is primarily driven by the global increase in chronic respiratory diseases such as asthma, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), cystic fibrosis, and pulmonary arterial hypertension. Urbanization, environmental pollution, tobacco use, and occupational exposures continue to contribute to the escalating disease burden. The market benefits from a rising awareness of early diagnosis and sustained therapy for respiratory conditions. Pulmonary devices offer targeted drug delivery directly to the lungs, reducing systemic side effects and improving therapeutic efficacy. Patients and physicians increasingly prefer inhalers and nebulizers over oral or injectable routes for long-term respiratory care. The growing patient population requires efficient and user-friendly solutions, creating a robust demand pipeline for inhalation-based drug delivery systems.

• For instance, according to the World Health Organization (WHO) and leading global health estimates, over 384 million people worldwide are affected by chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), while asthma impacts more than 339 million individuals.

Technological Advancements in Inhalation Devices Support Market Expansion

The integration of smart technologies into drug delivery platforms has significantly strengthened product capabilities and user compliance. Innovative inhalers with dose counters, breath-actuated triggers, and feedback mechanisms are enhancing treatment precision and reducing user error. The Pulmonary Drug Delivery Devices Market is evolving with the adoption of digital health solutions such as Bluetooth-enabled inhalers and mobile applications for adherence monitoring. Manufacturers are investing in the development of mesh nebulizers and dual-function delivery systems that improve drug particle deposition and minimize wastage. These innovations improve usability for patients across age groups, especially children and the elderly. The emphasis on portability and connectivity is making pulmonary devices more accessible for home use and remote monitoring.

• For example, Teva Pharmaceuticals launched the Digihaler family, the first FDA-approved inhalers with built-in sensors that record inhalation data and wirelessly transmit it to a mobile app.

Growing Preference for Home-Based Treatment Fuels Demand for Portable Devices

The shift toward decentralized healthcare and patient-centric treatment models is amplifying demand for portable and self-administered pulmonary devices. Rising healthcare costs, combined with the convenience of at-home management, have led patients to opt for personal inhalers and compact nebulizers. The Pulmonary Drug Delivery Devices Market benefits from this transition by offering solutions tailored for use outside of clinical settings. Product designs now emphasize ease of handling, reduced dosing complexity, and lightweight construction. The increase in elderly patients with chronic respiratory illnesses has further increased demand for home-compatible drug delivery options. This trend aligns with broader public health goals of reducing hospital readmissions and managing long-term conditions in community settings.

Regulatory Support and Market Access Strategies Encourage Innovation

Governments and health organizations are supporting the adoption of pulmonary drug delivery technologies through favorable policies and public health initiatives. Several countries have introduced reimbursement models that promote the use of advanced inhalation therapies, especially for chronic conditions like COPD and asthma. The Pulmonary Drug Delivery Devices Market is also influenced by growing investment in respiratory research and strategic partnerships among pharmaceutical and medical device companies. Regulatory frameworks in developed markets encourage innovation through fast-track approvals and data-driven performance evaluations. Companies are leveraging these frameworks to introduce novel products with improved safety, efficacy, and patient adherence. Continuous advancements in formulation science and device engineering will further strengthen the commercial viability of next-generation pulmonary solutions.

Market Trends:

Increasing Adoption of Biologic Therapies via Inhalation Platforms

Biologic drugs are gaining traction in respiratory care, with a growing interest in developing inhalable formulations of monoclonal antibodies and peptides. The trend stems from the need to improve patient compliance by replacing intravenous delivery with non-invasive inhalation routes. Companies are exploring dry powder and nebulized forms of biologics for diseases such as pulmonary arterial hypertension, cystic fibrosis, and severe asthma. The Pulmonary Drug Delivery Devices Market is witnessing new product development efforts aimed at optimizing delivery mechanisms for large-molecule therapies. It supports the integration of biologics into advanced inhaler platforms by ensuring appropriate particle size distribution and pulmonary deposition. This trend is reshaping the conventional boundaries of inhalation therapy and expanding its therapeutic potential beyond traditional bronchodilators and corticosteroids.

Growing Role of Artificial Intelligence and Predictive Analytics in Inhaler Monitoring

Artificial intelligence and data analytics are playing an increasingly strategic role in personalizing respiratory treatment plans. Smart inhalers equipped with sensors now generate real-time usage data, which can be analyzed using AI algorithms to detect patterns, predict exacerbations, and support clinical decision-making. The Pulmonary Drug Delivery Devices Market is evolving to accommodate digital ecosystems that integrate inhaler data with electronic health records (EHRs) and telemedicine platforms. This convergence improves patient engagement, ensures timely interventions, and enhances disease management outcomes. AI-based insights also help in identifying non-compliant patients and tailoring adherence strategies. The growing use of predictive analytics represents a significant shift toward evidence-based, tech-driven pulmonary care.

Customization of Inhaler Devices Based on Demographic and Behavioral Profiles

Manufacturers are increasingly designing drug delivery devices to address the unique needs of specific patient populations, such as pediatrics, geriatrics, and patients with physical or cognitive impairments. Customization in design, dosing, and actuation techniques is becoming a key trend in the Pulmonary Drug Delivery Devices Market. It includes features like color-coded packaging for children, ergonomic grips for arthritis patients, and simplified interfaces for older adults. The focus is on enhancing patient usability and satisfaction while minimizing training requirements. Behavioral research is also influencing product development, encouraging devices that accommodate variable inhalation techniques. These design innovations contribute to improved therapy adherence and long-term clinical outcomes.

• For example, Cipla offers the Huf Puf kit, a spacer device designed to help children up to four years old use inhalers effectively. The kit includes color-coded components that simplify dosage and enhance delivery.

Environmental Sustainability Drives Development of Eco-Friendly Inhalers

Environmental regulations and growing consumer awareness are encouraging the transition toward eco-friendly inhaler technologies. Pressurized metered-dose inhalers (pMDIs), which use hydrofluoroalkane (HFA) propellants, are under scrutiny for their carbon footprint. The Pulmonary Drug Delivery Devices Market is adapting by promoting propellant-free alternatives such as dry powder inhalers (DPIs) and soft mist inhalers (SMIs). Leading manufacturers are investing in sustainable packaging materials and recyclable components to align with global climate commitments. Regulatory agencies in Europe and North America are supporting low-emission inhaler initiatives by updating approval frameworks and encouraging green innovations. The emphasis on sustainability is expected to influence device portfolios and reshape competitive positioning across the market.

• For example, AstraZeneca’s Trixeo Aerosphere has become the world’s first pressurized metered-dose inhaler (pMDI) respiratory treatment approved with a near-zero global warming potential (GWP) propellant, cutting device emissions by 99.9%.

Market Challenges Analysis:

Complexity in Device Usage Reduces Patient Compliance and Treatment Efficacy

Improper inhaler technique remains a significant barrier to optimal treatment outcomes in the Pulmonary Drug Delivery Devices Market. Many patients struggle with correct usage, including issues such as insufficient inhalation force, incorrect timing of dose actuation, and failure to shake the device. These errors lead to suboptimal drug delivery and reduced therapeutic effectiveness, particularly in populations with limited health literacy or physical impairments. It faces challenges in ensuring consistent and accurate drug deposition across diverse user groups. While manufacturers are introducing user-friendly designs and digital aids, patient education and training still lag behind. Healthcare providers often lack time or resources to reinforce inhalation techniques, making device misuse a persistent issue across both developed and emerging markets.

Regulatory Complexity and Cost Pressures Limit Market Penetration

Navigating the regulatory landscape remains a challenge for manufacturers developing new pulmonary drug delivery systems. The Pulmonary Drug Delivery Devices Market must comply with stringent device and drug combination regulations, which vary across geographies and involve lengthy approval processes. Meeting evolving standards for safety, environmental impact, and digital functionality increases development costs and extends time-to-market. It also faces pricing pressure due to cost-containment measures by governments and insurance providers, particularly in low- and middle-income countries. These financial and regulatory hurdles limit the scalability of advanced inhalers and digital devices, especially among smaller players. Sustaining innovation while managing compliance and affordability poses a constant tension in the competitive landscape.

Market Opportunities:

Expansion into Emerging Markets Unlocks Untapped Demand Potential

Rapid urbanization, growing pollution levels, and increasing healthcare access in developing countries are creating fertile ground for the expansion of the Pulmonary Drug Delivery Devices Market. Governments in Asia-Pacific, Latin America, and parts of Africa are investing in respiratory disease screening and public health infrastructure. It can capitalize on these initiatives by offering affordable, portable, and easy-to-use inhalation devices. Collaborations with local healthcare providers and public-private partnerships can accelerate market penetration. Rising awareness of asthma and COPD, along with improved diagnosis rates, is driving steady demand for inhalers and nebulizers in these regions. Customized solutions adapted to regional preferences and affordability thresholds will enhance competitiveness.

Integration of Inhalation Platforms with Digital Health Ecosystems

The shift toward digital healthcare presents new growth avenues for smart pulmonary drug delivery solutions. Wearable integration, remote monitoring, and cloud-based data analytics are transforming patient engagement and treatment adherence. The Pulmonary Drug Delivery Devices Market can leverage these technologies to deliver personalized care and enhance clinical outcomes. Real-time tracking and AI-enabled alerts allow providers to intervene early in cases of non-compliance or disease exacerbation. Pharmaceutical and tech collaborations can generate value-added offerings that go beyond traditional inhalers. These connected devices also support the transition toward value-based care and evidence-driven reimbursement models.

Market Segmentation Analysis:

The Pulmonary Drug Delivery Devices Market is segmented by product, application, and end use.

 By product, inhalers dominate the market, with dry powder inhalers (DPIs) and metered dose inhalers (MDIs) holding significant shares due to their portability and ease of use. Nebulizers continue to serve critical care and pediatric patients, while accessories such as spacers and holding chambers support drug delivery efficiency.

• For example, Philips’ InnoSpire Go mesh nebulizer, launched in 2022, delivers a typical 2.5 mL dose in under 4 minutes, catering to pediatric and critical care settings.

 By application, asthma and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) are the leading segments, driven by rising global prevalence and the need for long-term respiratory management. Cystic fibrosis, allergic rhinitis, and pulmonary arterial hypertension form smaller but steadily expanding niches with growing treatment innovations.

• For exampale, Boehringer Ingelheim’s Spiriva Respimat (tiotropium) received regulatory approval in over 100 countries and is backed by the TIOSPIR trial, which enrolled more than 17,000 COPD patients. The large-scale TIOSPIR study, conducted across 50 countries, demonstrated that tiotropium delivered via Respimat offers efficacy and safety comparable to the HandiHaler form confirming its role in reducing COPD exacerbations and maintaining lung function over long-term treatment.

By end use, with hospitals and clinics accounting for the highest demand due to high patient volume and availability of advanced infrastructure. Home care is gaining traction, especially post-pandemic, driven by demand for remote care and user-friendly devices. Ambulatory surgical centers (ASCs) and other settings support specific outpatient or chronic care needs.

Segmentation:

By Product:

• Inhalers
  • Dry Powder Inhalers
  • Metered Dose Inhalers
• Nebulizers
• Accessories

By Application:

• Asthma
• Cystic Fibrosis
• Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD)
• Allergic Rhinitis
• Pulmonary Arterial Hypertension
• Others

By End Use:

• Hospitals & Clinics
• Ambulatory Surgical Centers (ASCs)
• Home Care
• Others

By Region:

• North America
  • U.S.
  • Canada
  • Mexico
• Europe
  • Germany
  • France
  • U.K.
  • Italy
  • Spain
  • Rest of Europe
• Asia Pacific
  • China
  • Japan
  • India
  • South Korea
  • South-east Asia
  • Rest of Asia Pacific
• Latin America
  • Brazil
  • Argentina
  • Rest of Latin America
• Middle East & Africa
  • GCC Countries
  • South Africa
  • Rest of the Middle East and Africa

Regional Analysis:

North America

The North America Pulmonary Drug Delivery Devices Market size was valued at USD 9,768.81 million in 2018 to USD 12,151.23 million in 2024 and is anticipated to reach USD 16,609.27 million by 2032, at a CAGR of 4.0% during the forecast period. North America holds the largest share of the global market, accounting for nearly 30% of the total revenue. This dominance stems from a high prevalence of chronic respiratory diseases, robust healthcare infrastructure, and strong reimbursement frameworks. The U.S. drives most of the regional demand with widespread access to advanced inhalation therapies and growing adoption of smart inhalers. It also benefits from continuous R&D investments and early regulatory approvals that support the introduction of novel technologies. Canada contributes steadily, with expanding public health initiatives focused on asthma and COPD management. The region remains a key innovation hub for device manufacturers.

Europe

The Europe Pulmonary Drug Delivery Devices Market size was valued at USD 10,678.03 million in 2018 to USD 13,675.72 million in 2024 and is anticipated to reach USD 19,451.04 million by 2032, at a CAGR of 4.5% during the forecast period. Europe represents the second-largest regional market, capturing approximately 28% of the global share. Countries like Germany, the U.K., and France lead adoption, driven by aging populations and increasing cases of chronic pulmonary conditions. The region benefits from well-established healthcare systems and proactive regulatory support for advanced drug delivery systems. It also shows strong demand for propellant-free and eco-friendly inhalers due to stringent environmental regulations. Public awareness campaigns and physician training programs support high rates of correct inhaler use. Digital health integration is gaining momentum, particularly in Western Europe.

Asia Pacific

The Asia Pacific Pulmonary Drug Delivery Devices Market size was valued at USD 14,987.17 million in 2018 to USD 19,839.51 million in 2024 and is anticipated to reach USD 29,424.34 million by 2032, at a CAGR of 5.1% during the forecast period. Asia Pacific is the fastest-growing region, holding 32% of the global market share. Rapid urbanization, increasing pollution, and rising respiratory disease incidence fuel demand across countries like China, India, and Japan. It is witnessing increased investments in healthcare infrastructure and diagnostic capabilities. Local manufacturers are entering the market with cost-effective and portable inhalers suited for mass deployment. Government-led initiatives to raise awareness and expand access to respiratory treatments further support market growth. Telehealth and digital solutions are emerging in urban centers.

Latin America

The Latin America Pulmonary Drug Delivery Devices Market size was valued at USD 3,619.67 million in 2018 to USD 4,232.51 million in 2024 and is anticipated to reach USD 5,265.41 million by 2032, at a CAGR of 2.8% during the forecast period. Latin America holds a moderate 7% share of the global market, with Brazil and Mexico leading regional adoption. Growing healthcare investments, increasing diagnosis of chronic diseases, and gradual expansion of medical infrastructure are contributing to market growth. It shows demand for low-cost and portable inhalers, especially in public hospitals and rural clinics. Patient education programs are helping improve inhaler usage techniques. Regulatory barriers and uneven access to advanced treatments pose challenges to rapid growth. Local distribution partnerships are playing a critical role in device availability.

Middle East

The Middle East Pulmonary Drug Delivery Devices Market size was valued at USD 3,063.79 million in 2018 to USD 3,804.56 million in 2024 and is anticipated to reach USD 5,187.98 million by 2032, at a CAGR of 4.0% during the forecast period. The Middle East accounts for roughly 6% of the global market share and is steadily expanding due to increased focus on non-communicable diseases and healthcare modernization. Countries such as Saudi Arabia and the UAE are investing in digital healthcare infrastructure and respiratory care services. It benefits from a growing private healthcare sector and high demand for home-based treatments. Adoption of smart nebulizers and inhalers is increasing in urban centers. Cross-border collaborations and regulatory reforms are supporting the introduction of international products. Air quality concerns are also raising awareness around respiratory health.

Africa

The Africa Pulmonary Drug Delivery Devices Market size was valued at USD 973.86 million in 2018 to USD 1,162.37 million in 2024 and is anticipated to reach USD 1,494.45 million by 2032, at a CAGR of 3.2% during the forecast period. Africa holds the smallest share in the global market, contributing nearly 3% of total revenue. Limited access to healthcare, low diagnosis rates, and affordability constraints hinder rapid market expansion. However, it is witnessing gradual improvements in healthcare delivery and growing interest from international health organizations. Countries such as South Africa, Kenya, and Nigeria are focal points for pilot programs in respiratory care. Mobile health initiatives and donation-based device distribution support incremental growth. Educational outreach and public health partnerships will be key to unlocking market potential in the region.

Key Player Analysis:

• 3M
• AstraZeneca plc
• GSK plc
• Koninklijke Philips N.V.
• OMRON Healthcare, Inc.
• PARI GmbH
• Cipla Ltd
• Bristol-Myers Squibb Company
• AptarGroup, Inc.
• Chiesi Farmaceutici S.p.A.
• Nypro Healthcare Inc.
• Hovione
• Other Key Players

Competitive Analysis:

The Pulmonary Drug Delivery Devices Market is highly competitive, with leading players focusing on innovation, strategic collaborations, and product diversification to strengthen their market presence. Key companies such as GSK plc, AstraZeneca, Boehringer Ingelheim, Teva Pharmaceutical Industries, and Novartis AG dominate the space with extensive portfolios of inhalers and nebulized therapies. It is witnessing intensified competition due to the entry of digital health companies integrating smart features into traditional devices. Emerging players are targeting niche segments with low-cost, patient-centric designs. Mergers, acquisitions, and licensing agreements remain common strategies to expand global reach and pipeline capabilities. Companies are investing in research and development to improve drug delivery efficiency, reduce dosage errors, and enhance patient adherence. Regulatory compliance and patent protection play a critical role in maintaining competitive advantage. The emphasis on eco-friendly and connected devices is reshaping the innovation landscape and driving new product launches across the industry.

Recent Developments:

• In July 2025, Merck & Co. agreed to acquire Verona Pharma for approximately $10 billion, securing access to Ohtuvayre a novel inhaled therapy for COPD.
• In May 2025, Philips partnered with Polarean to integrate advanced Xenon MRI technology into its MRI systems, enabling safer and more precise pulmonary imaging for children with chronic lung diseases. This partnership aims to transform how clinicians diagnose and monitor lung function, offering radiation-free imaging solutions.
• In July 2023, Viatris and Kindeva launched Breyna™, the first FDA-approved generic version of Symbicort (budesonide/formoterol inhalation aerosol) designed for asthma and COPD patients. This drug-device combination became available immediately in two dosage strengths (80/4.5 µg and 160/4.5 µg).

Market Concentration & Characteristics:

The Pulmonary Drug Delivery Devices Market exhibits moderate to high market concentration, with a few multinational pharmaceutical and medical device companies controlling a significant share of global revenue. It is characterized by strong brand loyalty, extensive patent portfolios, and high barriers to entry due to regulatory and technological complexities. The market favors companies with integrated capabilities in drug formulation and device engineering. Innovation cycles are frequent, driven by advancements in inhaler design, digital connectivity, and patient-centric features. The market structure supports long-term contracts, especially in institutional and government procurement. Cost-efficiency, clinical efficacy, and ease of use remain critical factors influencing product success.

Report Coverage:

The research report offers an in-depth analysis based on product, application, and end use. It details leading market players, providing an overview of their business, product offerings, investments, revenue streams, and key applications. Additionally, the report includes insights into the competitive environment, SWOT analysis, current market trends, as well as the primary drivers and constraints. Furthermore, it discusses various factors that have driven market expansion in recent years. The report also explores market dynamics, regulatory scenarios, and technological advancements that are shaping the industry. It assesses the impact of external factors and global economic changes on market growth. Lastly, it provides strategic recommendations for new entrants and established companies to navigate the complexities of the market.

Future Outlook:

• Rising global burden of asthma and COPD will continue to drive consistent demand for advanced inhalation devices.
• Increasing adoption of smart inhalers and connected devices will reshape patient engagement and monitoring.
• Biologic drug delivery through inhalation platforms is expected to expand treatment applications beyond traditional therapies.
• Emerging markets in Asia and Africa offer significant untapped growth opportunities due to expanding healthcare access.
• Technological advancements in mesh nebulizers and soft mist inhalers will enhance drug delivery efficiency.
• Sustainability concerns will accelerate the shift toward eco-friendly, propellant-free inhaler options.
• Integration of AI and data analytics will support personalized respiratory care and predictive interventions.
• Growing preference for home-based treatment will boost demand for compact, user-friendly pulmonary devices.
• Regulatory support for digital health solutions will encourage faster adoption of innovative delivery systems.
• Strategic partnerships between pharma and medtech companies will drive portfolio diversification and market expansion.

Rising Prevalence of Respiratory Diseases

The increasing global incidence of asthma, COPD, cystic fibrosis, and other respiratory conditions - driven by pollution, smoking, and aging populations - is fueling demand for targeted pulmonary drug delivery devices that offer effective, localized treatment.

Technological Advancements in Inhalation Devices

Innovations such as smart inhalers, mesh nebulizers, and digital connectivity are improving drug delivery efficiency, patient adherence, and ease of use, making these devices more attractive for both patients and healthcare providers.

Shift Toward Home-Based and Self-Administered Care

Growing preference for home-based treatment, especially post-pandemic, is boosting demand for portable, user-friendly, and remotely monitored pulmonary drug delivery devices, supporting better disease management outside clinical settings.

Regulatory and Reimbursement Support

Favorable government policies, reimbursement programs, and fast-track regulatory approvals in key markets like North America and Europe are encouraging the adoption of advanced inhalation therapies and supporting market expansion.

Expansion in Emerging Markets

Rapid urbanization, increasing air pollution, and improved healthcare infrastructure in Asia Pacific, Latin America, and Africa are creating new opportunities for market growth as awareness and diagnosis of respiratory diseases rise.

Note: The depth of individual sections depends on data availability for this market. Volume, capacity, trade and other unit-based metrics are included where applicable.