Adult Diapers Market Size, Share, Growth and Forecast 2032

Market Overview:

The Global Adult Diapers Market size was valued at USD 14,675.43 million in 2018 to USD 21,829.25 million in 2024 and is anticipated to reach USD 36,976.00 million by 2032, at a CAGR of 6.34% during the forecast period.

One of the primary growth drivers for the adult diapers market is the increasing geriatric population across the globe, particularly in high-income and rapidly aging countries such as Japan, Germany, the United States, and China. This demographic shift has led to a growing prevalence of age-related health conditions like urinary and fecal incontinence, thereby driving demand for adult incontinence care solutions. Additionally, there is a notable rise in the number of individuals with mobility impairments, post-operative recovery needs, or chronic illnesses that necessitate the regular use of adult diapers. Consumer preferences are also evolving toward more discreet, skin-friendly, and highly absorbent products, prompting manufacturers to invest in product innovation using advanced materials and ergonomic designs. The increasing acceptance of adult diapers, supported by awareness campaigns and the rising prominence of digital retail channels, has made it easier for consumers to access these products conveniently and with greater privacy.

Regionally, North America leads the global adult diapers market, owing to its well-established healthcare infrastructure, higher spending on personal care products, and strong presence of key market players. The United States remains the largest contributor within the region due to robust insurance coverage for incontinence products and the rising adoption of home healthcare services. Europe follows closely, with countries such as Germany, the United Kingdom, and France exhibiting high product penetration driven by aging populations and institutional demand from nursing homes and assisted living facilities. Asia-Pacific, however, is projected to be the fastest-growing region through 2032, fueled by expanding elderly demographics, increasing urbanization, and rising health awareness, particularly in emerging economies such as China, India, and South Korea. Governments in these countries are increasingly prioritizing geriatric care, while growing disposable incomes and retail availability are accelerating product adoption.

Market Insights:

• The Global Adult Diapers Market reached USD 21,829.25 million in 2024 and is projected to hit USD 36,976.00 million by 2032, expanding at a CAGR of 6.34%.
• A rapidly aging population in countries like Japan, Germany, the United States, and China is driving strong demand for adult incontinence products.
• Innovations in design and materials, including odor control and body-contouring fits, are enhancing product comfort, discretion, and adoption.
• Shifting cultural norms and awareness initiatives are helping reduce stigma, increasing product acceptance among younger users and caregivers.
• Institutional support through hospitals and home healthcare networks is boosting repeat product usage and accelerating bulk procurement.
• High product costs and lack of coverage in low-income markets remain major barriers, limiting access in price-sensitive regions.
• North America leads the market with 31% share, while Asia-Pacific emerges as the fastest-growing region due to urbanization and growing geriatric care investments.

Market Drivers:

Growing Geriatric Population and Rising Incontinence Prevalence Fueling Steady Demand

A significant driver of the Global Adult Diapers Market is the expanding elderly population, particularly in countries with aging demographics such as Japan, Germany, Italy, and the United States. With age-related health issues like urinary incontinence and mobility limitations becoming more common, the need for adult incontinence products has increased considerably. The prevalence of chronic diseases such as diabetes, Parkinson’s, and Alzheimer’s further contributes to product demand in both residential and institutional settings. Healthcare providers and caregivers are prioritizing convenience and hygiene, creating consistent demand across hospitals, nursing homes, and home-care environments. The Global Adult Diapers Market is responding with a broad range of solutions designed to meet the specific needs of older adults. This demographic shift continues to reinforce the market’s long-term relevance and growth trajectory.

• For instance, The Alzheimer’s Association reports that in 2024, about 6.9 million Americans aged 65 and older are living with Alzheimer's, illustrating the scale of need for such products in elderly care

Product Innovations Enhancing Comfort, Absorbency, and Discretion Accelerate Adoption

Technological advancements in material science and product design are significantly improving the quality and appeal of adult diapers. Modern products feature superabsorbent polymers, breathable fabrics, odor-control technology, and skin-friendly materials that minimize irritation and ensure prolonged comfort. Manufacturers are focusing on discreet, body-contouring designs to allow users to maintain dignity and confidence during daily activities. These innovations address long-standing concerns related to bulkiness and visibility, encouraging use among younger and mobile adults as well. It enables companies to broaden their target audience beyond the elderly and attract customers seeking preventive or situational incontinence care. The market is benefitting from these performance improvements, which differentiate premium products and support brand loyalty.

• For example, Unicharm launched the “LIFREE Ultra Slim Comfort Pants” featuring Ultrasonic Bonding Technology in the waist area to provide a more comfortable fit and easier handling for users. This innovation also improves compression rate and loading efficiency, contributing to reduced environmental impact.

Changing Social Attitudes and Awareness Campaigns Reducing Stigma Around Usage

Cultural perceptions around adult incontinence and diaper use have gradually shifted, particularly in urban and health-conscious societies. Public health organizations, advocacy groups, and brands are actively promoting awareness about incontinence as a manageable medical condition rather than a taboo subject. Educational campaigns have played a critical role in reducing embarrassment and encouraging open dialogue among patients, caregivers, and medical professionals. In parallel, retailers and e-commerce platforms provide privacy-oriented shopping options, which simplify the buying process and protect user confidentiality. It helps consumers overcome barriers to access and enhances their willingness to try new products. The market is witnessing increased penetration in segments that were historically underrepresented due to stigma and misinformation.

Growth of Home Healthcare and Institutional Support Driving Regular Product Usage

The expansion of home-based healthcare services and long-term care facilities is creating a structured and consistent need for adult diapers. As more patients receive care outside hospitals, the demand for reliable, easy-to-use incontinence solutions has intensified. Hospitals, assisted living facilities, and rehabilitation centers are also increasing bulk procurement of adult diapers to support hygiene protocols and patient comfort. These institutional channels contribute significantly to repeat sales, offering manufacturers a stable revenue stream. It also promotes the adoption of premium and specialized variants tailored for extended use and varying mobility levels. The Global Adult Diapers Market is leveraging this trend to expand distribution networks and develop customized offerings for clinical use cases.

Market Trends:

Emergence of Smart Diapers and Sensor-Enabled Incontinence Products Enhancing Monitoring

Technology integration is transforming traditional adult diapers into smart hygiene solutions that support real-time health monitoring. Sensor-enabled products can detect moisture levels, temperature, and usage patterns, allowing caregivers to manage changes more efficiently and reduce risks like rashes or infections. These innovations are particularly beneficial in institutional care settings, where timely intervention improves comfort and hygiene outcomes for patients. Manufacturers are investing in digital platforms that pair with smart diapers to deliver alerts and analytics through mobile applications. It reflects a broader shift toward tech-enabled eldercare, making adult diaper usage more data-driven and responsive. The Global Adult Diapers Market is evolving to meet the needs of modern healthcare systems that demand efficiency, accuracy, and better patient management tools.

• Smardii’s smart adult diaper system, for example, integrates disposable sensors and a reusable, waterproof “Puck” to detect urine, stool, body temperature, and body positioning, while also performing real-time urinalysis. This system transmits alerts and analytics to caregivers via a dedicated dashboard and mobile app, enabling timely intervention and reducing risks such as rashes or infections in institutional settings.

Sustainable and Eco-Friendly Product Lines Gaining Traction Among Conscious Consumers

The market is witnessing a shift in consumer preferences toward environmentally sustainable products that minimize plastic and chemical usage. Several manufacturers are launching biodegradable and organic adult diapers made from plant-based fibers and chlorine-free materials. These products reduce landfill burden and appeal to customers who prioritize eco-conscious living, even in personal care decisions. It aligns with broader industry trends focused on circular economy principles and sustainable production practices. Companies are also introducing recyclable packaging and carbon-neutral manufacturing processes to reinforce their environmental commitment. The Global Adult Diapers Market is adapting to these sustainability expectations, especially in developed regions where environmental impact influences purchasing behavior.

• For instance, Bambo Nature’s adult diapers are certified zero-waste, fragrance-free, and latex-free, with multiple eco-label certifications. Leading brands like Pampers have reduced plastic use in packaging and promoted recyclable diaper initiatives, while Essity (TENA) has expanded eco-friendly, chlorine-free product lines and private-label collaborations to increase accessibility.

Premiumization and Lifestyle-Oriented Branding Redefining Product Positioning

Adult diapers are increasingly positioned as lifestyle products rather than purely medical necessities. Brands are investing in premium product lines that emphasize comfort, aesthetics, and performance, appealing to a broader demographic including younger adults with temporary or light incontinence. The marketing strategy focuses on aspirational branding, sleek packaging, and user testimonials to break stereotypes and normalize usage. It is helping the market reposition adult diapers as everyday hygiene tools comparable to other personal care items. Premiumization supports higher margins and differentiates brands in competitive retail environments. The Global Adult Diapers Market is experiencing this brand transformation, which is elevating product visibility across mainstream and niche retail channels.

Direct-to-Consumer (DTC) Channels and Subscription Services Reshaping Distribution Models

Digital transformation is reshaping how adult diapers reach consumers through direct-to-consumer platforms and auto-replenishment subscription models. Startups and established brands alike are developing online portals that offer customized sizing, discreet packaging, and regular delivery services. These models reduce dependency on traditional retail outlets and allow brands to build long-term customer relationships through personalized service. It supports greater convenience for caregivers and users managing chronic incontinence. The subscription economy enables predictable sales cycles and better inventory management for companies. The Global Adult Diapers Market is increasingly aligning with DTC trends to meet the evolving expectations of tech-savvy and privacy-focused consumers.

Market Challenges Analysis:

High Product Cost and Affordability Concerns Restricting Mass Adoption in Price-Sensitive Regions

The high cost of adult diapers continues to limit market penetration in low- and middle-income countries, where affordability remains a key concern for consumers and caregivers. In many regions, the lack of insurance coverage or government subsidies for incontinence products prevents regular use among economically disadvantaged populations. Bulk purchasing options and low-cost alternatives are limited, leaving many dependents on reusable or improvised solutions that may compromise hygiene. The Global Adult Diapers Market faces pressure to introduce cost-effective product lines without sacrificing quality or performance. Balancing price and functionality remains a challenge, especially in regions where purchasing decisions are driven by immediate economic constraints rather than long-term healthcare planning. Manufacturers need to adapt pricing strategies and distribution models to capture demand in underserved markets.

Social Stigma and Cultural Sensitivities Hindering Open Adoption Across Demographics

Despite rising awareness, social stigma around incontinence and adult diaper use persists in many parts of the world, creating reluctance among users to seek or purchase such products. Cultural perceptions often associate diaper use with helplessness or disability, particularly among younger adults with temporary conditions or postpartum needs. This psychological barrier reduces product visibility and delays usage initiation even when medical needs exist. It affects both individual consumers and institutional buyers, especially in cultures where privacy and modesty dominate health-related discussions. The Global Adult Diapers Market must navigate these sensitivities by promoting inclusive messaging and investing in educational campaigns that normalize product usage. Building consumer confidence requires tactful communication, supportive healthcare engagement, and a shift in public discourse.

Market Opportunities:

Expansion into Untapped Rural and Emerging Markets Unlocking New Revenue Streams

The growing awareness of adult hygiene in rural and semi-urban areas across emerging economies presents a significant opportunity for market expansion. Improved healthcare infrastructure, rising disposable incomes, and increased retail penetration are gradually transforming these regions into viable markets. The Global Adult Diapers Market can capitalize on this shift by offering affordable product variants tailored to local needs and preferences. Strategic partnerships with healthcare providers, NGOs, and community outreach programs can help drive education and accessibility. Building region-specific supply chains and enhancing distribution through pharmacies and rural clinics will further accelerate adoption. These markets offer long-term potential for sustained growth, especially when supported by localized marketing and awareness campaigns.

Development of Specialized and Gender-Specific Products Driving Niche Demand Growth

The demand for specialized adult diapers catering to different physiological needs, mobility levels, and genders is rising steadily. Customized products for men and women, nighttime protection, or post-surgery care are gaining traction among users seeking more effective and comfortable solutions. It allows manufacturers to differentiate offerings and tap into niche segments with higher value potential. The Global Adult Diapers Market stands to benefit from this trend by investing in research and product design innovations. Introducing new formats, such as ultra-thin or highly discreet variants, can further appeal to active adults managing mild incontinence. These innovations create premium opportunities while enhancing brand reputation and consumer loyalty.

Market Segmentation Analysis:

The Global Adult Diapers Market is segmented by product type, age group, gender, and distribution channel, each contributing uniquely to market dynamics.

By product types, tape-type diapers dominate institutional use due to their high absorbency and ease of change, especially for bedridden patients. Adult pull-up pants are gaining popularity among mobile users seeking comfort and discretion. Pads serve mild incontinence needs, while the “others” category includes niche and hybrid formats.

• For instance, Kimberly-Clark’s Depend® and NorthShore’s MegaMax Tab-Style Briefs are leading tape/tab-style adult diapers used in institutional settings. NorthShore MegaMax is designed for up to 12 hours of protection and features a wide, long core for maximum absorbency, making it suitable for bedridden patients and overnight use.

By age group, older adults form the core consumer base, driven by aging-related incontinence and rising elderly populations worldwide. The individuals with disabilities segment also holds a significant share, reflecting demand across all age groups with mobility or health challenges.

By gender, unisex products lead in volume due to standardization and cost efficiency. However, manufacturers are expanding male and female-specific lines to improve anatomical fit and performance.

• For instance, Prevail Per‑Fit 360 Daily Briefs are clearly labeled as unisex, built for heavy leakage, feature 360° breathable zones, Dri‑Fit and MaxSorb gel layers, and quick-lock tabs-making them suitable for both genders

By distribution, hypermarkets/supermarkets and drug stores/pharmacies account for a substantial share due to accessibility and trust. Online retail is expanding rapidly, supported by privacy preferences and subscription models. Specialty stores, convenience stores, and others fill the remaining space, mainly in urban and semi-urban markets. The Global Adult Diapers Market adapts its segmentation to meet diverse consumer needs across multiple demographics and buying behaviors.

Segmentation:

By Product Type:

• Tape Type
• Adult Pull-Up Pants
• Pads
• Others

By Age Group:

• Older Adults
• Individuals with Disabilities

By Gender:

• Male
• Female
• Unisex

By Distribution Channel:

• Hypermarkets/Supermarkets
• Convenience Stores
• Specialty Stores
• Drug Stores/Pharmacies
• Online Retail
• Others

By Region:

• North America
  • U.S.
  • Canada
  • Mexico
• Europe
  • Germany
  • France
  • U.K.
  • Italy
  • Spain
  • Rest of Europe
• Asia Pacific
  • China
  • Japan
  • India
  • South Korea
  • South-east Asia
  • Rest of Asia Pacific
• Latin America
  • Brazil
  • Argentina
  • Rest of Latin America
• Middle East & Africa
  • GCC Countries
  • South Africa
  • Rest of the Middle East and Africa

Regional Analysis:

The North America Adult Diapers Market size was valued at USD 6,111.58 million in 2018 to USD 8,991.80 million in 2024 and is anticipated to reach USD 15,275.34 million by 2032, at a CAGR of 6.4% during the forecast period. North America accounts for the largest share in the Global Adult Diapers Market, holding 31% of the total market in 2024. High consumer awareness, strong purchasing power, and widespread insurance coverage for incontinence care support consistent product demand. The United States leads the region with advanced healthcare infrastructure and a large aging population relying on both institutional and home-based care. Product innovation, brand loyalty, and premium positioning further drive market growth. Manufacturers are actively leveraging e-commerce channels and direct-to-consumer models to reach end-users efficiently. It continues to present opportunities for high-margin product development and personalized offerings for active aging populations.

The Europe Adult Diapers Market size was valued at USD 2,913.95 million in 2018 to USD 4,111.16 million in 2024 and is anticipated to reach USD 6,372.17 million by 2032, at a CAGR of 5.2% during the forecast period. Europe holds 14% of the Global Adult Diapers Market in 2024, supported by a well-developed elderly care system and extensive use in assisted living facilities. Countries such as Germany, France, the United Kingdom, and Italy drive strong regional demand due to progressive healthcare policies and high aging indexes. Institutional procurement and bulk usage in hospitals and nursing homes significantly contribute to market volume. Brands emphasize eco-friendly and dermatologically tested products to align with EU sustainability and health standards. The presence of private-label and branded options across retail outlets creates a competitive yet mature market environment. It benefits from consistent demand and regulatory support favoring quality and innovation.

The Asia Pacific Adult Diapers Market size was valued at USD 4,218.45 million in 2018 to USD 6,627.03 million in 2024 and is anticipated to reach USD 12,247.38 million by 2032, at a CAGR of 7.5% during the forecast period. Asia Pacific represents 23% of the Global Adult Diapers Market in 2024 and is the fastest-growing regional segment. Rapid demographic aging in China, Japan, South Korea, and India is creating substantial long-term demand. Urbanization, rising disposable incomes, and improving healthcare access are increasing product awareness and affordability. Governments in the region are investing in eldercare and long-term care infrastructure, fostering market expansion. Domestic and international brands are expanding retail networks and launching localized product variants to cater to regional preferences. It offers high-growth potential, especially with continued retail digitization and supportive public health initiatives.

The Latin America Adult Diapers Market size was valued at USD 696.35 million in 2018 to USD 1,022.98 million in 2024 and is anticipated to reach USD 1,534.61 million by 2032, at a CAGR of 4.7% during the forecast period. Latin America accounts for 4.7% of the Global Adult Diapers Market in 2024, with Brazil, Mexico, and Argentina leading consumption. Growth is driven by rising health awareness, expansion of healthcare facilities, and increased spending on personal hygiene. Though price sensitivity remains a constraint, the market is witnessing a gradual shift toward branded disposable incontinence products. E-commerce channels and drugstore retail formats are gaining traction in urban areas. Multinational players are targeting mid-range product segments to address affordability while maintaining quality. It reflects early-stage growth characteristics, with strong potential for wider product penetration.

The Middle East Adult Diapers Market size was valued at USD 427.35 million in 2018 to USD 583.14 million in 2024 and is anticipated to reach USD 839.85 million by 2032, at a CAGR of 4.2% during the forecast period. The Middle East holds 2% of the Global Adult Diapers Market in 2024, with demand centered in Saudi Arabia, the UAE, and Israel. Growth is fueled by increasing elderly populations, changing cultural attitudes, and a gradual shift toward institutional eldercare. Retail modernization and the emergence of health-focused retail chains support wider product access. Brands are introducing thinner, breathable variants to suit regional climate conditions and consumer preferences. Local awareness campaigns are beginning to reduce stigma associated with incontinence and adult diaper use. It offers moderate growth opportunities supported by infrastructure improvements and consumer education.

The Africa Adult Diapers Market size was valued at USD 307.74 million in 2018 to USD 493.15 million in 2024 and is anticipated to reach USD 706.65 million by 2032, at a CAGR of 4.1% during the forecast period. Africa represents 2.3% of the Global Adult Diapers Market in 2024, with South Africa, Nigeria, and Egypt leading regional demand. Growth is hindered by low awareness and limited affordability, especially in rural areas. However, increasing urbanization and efforts by NGOs and public health programs are driving awareness in targeted demographics. Local distribution partnerships and low-cost product introductions are supporting early market formation. Demand is expected to rise in urban centers where access to healthcare and retail outlets is improving. It remains an underpenetrated region with future growth linked to education and affordability initiatives.

Key Player Analysis:

• Essity (Tena)
• Kimberly-Clark Corporation
• Procter & Gamble
• Unicharm Corporation
• Ontex Group NV
• Hartmann Group (MoliCare)
• Domtar Corporation
• Medline Industries, Inc.
• Abena A/S
• First Quality Enterprises, Inc.

Competitive Analysis:

The Global Adult Diapers Market is moderately consolidated, with a mix of multinational corporations and regional players competing across diverse price points and distribution channels. Leading companies such as Kimberly-Clark Corporation, Procter & Gamble, Essity AB, Unicharm Corporation, and Daio Paper Corporation dominate the premium and mass-market segments. These players invest heavily in product innovation, sustainability, and branding to strengthen market share and customer loyalty. It experiences competitive intensity driven by continuous improvements in absorbency, comfort, and discreet design. Private-label brands are gaining traction in emerging economies by offering cost-effective alternatives with acceptable quality. E-commerce and direct-to-consumer platforms have allowed new entrants to challenge traditional retail dominance through targeted marketing and subscription models. Strategic partnerships, acquisitions, and regional expansions remain key tactics among major companies to diversify product portfolios and penetrate new markets. The market favors players who combine strong R&D capabilities with localized manufacturing and supply chain agility.

Recent Developments:

• On June 5, 2025, Kimberly-Clark announced a strategic partnership with Suzano to form a leading international tissue and professional products company. Under this agreement, Kimberly-Clark will hold a 49% stake in the new venture, with Suzano owning 51%. This move is part of Kimberly-Clark’s strategy to focus on higher-growth, higher-margin personal care and North American tissue businesses, while the new partnership aims to drive significant shareholder returns and operational efficiencies.
• On June 17, 2025, Ontex launched its iD Discreet incontinence range for European healthcare partners, offering discreet, breathable products designed for both home and professional care settings. The new range features innovations such as channeled core pants for instant dryness and night pads with wider backs for enhanced overnight protection. These products are distributed through pharmacies, health insurance funds, and care institutions across Europe.
• In October 2024, Medline Industries announced a partnership with Microsoft to develop Mpower™, a healthcare supply chain resiliency solution powered by Azure AI and Microsoft 365. This initiative aims to streamline inventory management and provide predictive, actionable insights to healthcare professionals, enhancing supply chain efficiency and resilience.

Market Concentration & Characteristics:

The Global Adult Diapers Market exhibits moderate to high market concentration, with a few dominant players accounting for a significant portion of global sales. It is characterized by strong brand loyalty, high barriers to entry in premium segments, and continuous innovation in product design and materials. Leading companies leverage economies of scale, advanced R&D, and expansive distribution networks to maintain competitive advantage. The market features both standardized and specialized products, catering to diverse user needs across age groups and mobility levels. Consumer expectations focus on comfort, discretion, skin safety, and environmental sustainability. Growth opportunities are concentrated in emerging economies, where rising awareness and healthcare improvements drive new demand. It also reflects regional variations in consumer preferences, pricing sensitivity, and retail infrastructure.

Report Coverage:

The research report offers an in-depth analysis based on product type, age group, gender, and distribution channel. It details leading market players, providing an overview of their business, product offerings, investments, revenue streams, and key applications. Additionally, the report includes insights into the competitive environment, SWOT analysis, current market trends, as well as the primary drivers and constraints. Furthermore, it discusses various factors that have driven market expansion in recent years. The report also explores market dynamics, regulatory scenarios, and technological advancements that are shaping the industry. It assesses the impact of external factors and global economic changes on market growth. Lastly, it provides strategic recommendations for new entrants and established companies to navigate the complexities of the market.

Future Outlook:

• Rising elderly population will continue to be the primary driver of sustained product demand across all regions.
• Increased adoption of smart diapers with embedded sensors will reshape incontinence management in clinical settings.
• Biodegradable and plant-based adult diapers will gain traction among eco-conscious consumers and retailers.
• E-commerce and subscription-based sales models will strengthen direct-to-consumer engagement and market penetration.
• Demand for gender-specific and ergonomically designed products will expand across active adult user segments.
• Growth in institutional purchases by hospitals and care homes will support steady bulk sales.
• Emerging economies will offer untapped growth potential through improved healthcare infrastructure and awareness.
• Collaborations between healthcare providers and manufacturers will enhance product accessibility and usage compliance.
• Investment in manufacturing automation and sustainable supply chains will improve scalability and cost efficiency.
• Cultural normalization through targeted education campaigns will reduce stigma and promote early adoption.

Growing Geriatric Population and Incontinence Prevalence

The rapidly aging population in countries such as Japan, Germany, the United States, and China is increasing the prevalence of age-related conditions like urinary and fecal incontinence, driving steady demand for adult diapers in both residential and institutional care settings.

Product Innovation in Comfort, Absorbency, and Discretion

Advancements in materials, ergonomic design, and features like odor control and body-contouring fits are making adult diapers more comfortable and discreet, encouraging adoption among both elderly and younger users with temporary or chronic incontinence needs.

Shifting Social Norms and Awareness Campaigns

Educational initiatives and changing cultural attitudes are reducing the stigma associated with adult diaper use, increasing acceptance and willingness to purchase among a broader demographic, including caregivers and younger adults.

Expansion of Home Healthcare and Institutional Support

The growth of home-based healthcare services and long-term care facilities is driving regular, bulk procurement of adult diapers, supporting repeat sales and the adoption of premium and specialized variants for different mobility and care needs.

Rising Penetration in Emerging Markets

Improved healthcare infrastructure, rising disposable incomes, and increased retail availability in emerging economies are expanding access to adult diapers, unlocking new revenue streams and supporting long-term market growth.

Note: The depth of individual sections depends on data availability for this market. Volume, capacity, trade and other unit-based metrics are included where applicable.