Industrial Design Market Size, Growth, Share and Forecast 2032

Market Overview

The Global Industrial Design Market is projected to grow significantly over the forecast period, expanding from USD 47,542.00 million in 2023 to an estimated USD 73,060.77 million by 2032, at a CAGR of 4.89% from 2024 to 2032. This growth reflects the increasing importance of innovative product design in enhancing customer experience, improving functionality, and boosting brand value.

The growth of the industrial design market is driven by advancements in technology, including artificial intelligence, 3D printing, and computer-aided design (CAD) software, which enhance efficiency and creativity in design processes. Increasing investments in research and development and the rising focus on sustainability are prominent trends shaping the market. Businesses are incorporating eco-friendly materials and sustainable design practices to align with global environmental concerns, further augmenting market demand.

Geographically, North America and Europe dominate the industrial design market due to the presence of established manufacturing sectors and a strong focus on innovation. However, Asia-Pacific is expected to witness the fastest growth, driven by rapid industrialization, urbanization, and the expansion of key end-use industries in countries like China and India. Major players in the global industrial design market include IDEO LLC, Designworks (a BMW Group Company), Frog Design Inc., and Teague. These companies focus on strategic collaborations, technological innovation, and expanding their service portfolios to maintain a competitive edge.

Market Insights

• The Global Industrial Design Market is projected to grow from USD 47,542.00 million in 2023 to USD 73,060.77 million by 2032, registering a CAGR of 4.89% from 2024 to 2032.
• The integration of AI, 3D printing, and CAD software is enhancing efficiency and creativity in the design process, driving market growth.
• Increasing demand for eco-friendly materials and sustainable design practices is shaping the market, aligning with global environmental concerns.
• High costs of technological integration and the need for skilled professionals pose challenges, particularly for small and medium-sized enterprises.
• North America and Europe lead the market due to their advanced manufacturing sectors and innovation-driven economies.
• Asia-Pacific is the fastest-growing region, fueled by rapid industrialization, urbanization, and expanding end-use industries in countries like China and India.
• Rising demand for aesthetically pleasing, functional, and sustainable products across industries like automotive, healthcare, and consumer electronics continues to drive market momentum.

Market Drivers

Technological Advancements in Design Processes

The rapid integration of advanced technologies such as artificial intelligence (AI), virtual reality (VR), augmented reality (AR), and computer-aided design (CAD) software has significantly transformed the industrial design landscape. These technologies streamline the design process, enabling designers to create highly sophisticated and intricate designs with greater efficiency. For instance, Bugatti’s use of 3D printing technology to create a titanium brake caliper for its Chiron supercar demonstrates how advanced manufacturing methods can produce highly complex and lightweight components, which are impossible to achieve with conventional techniques. Similarly, Autodesk's Generative Design software enabled General Motors to develop a 3D-printed seat bracket that is 40% lighter and 20% stronger than its predecessor, showcasing the efficiency and innovation brought by AI-powered design tools.Moreover, the increasing use of cloud-based design tools facilitates collaboration among geographically dispersed teams, ensuring seamless workflows and faster decision-making. Companies are investing in research and development to harness these technologies for creating innovative, user-centric products that cater to evolving consumer preferences. These advancements have made industrial design more accessible and versatile, driving market growth. This technological evolution is fostering innovation and improving overall design quality, making industrial design a critical element in modern product development.

Consumers today prioritize products that combine aesthetic appeal with functionality, driving demand for industrial design services across various industries. This trend is particularly prominent in sectors such as consumer electronics, automotive, and healthcare, where design plays a pivotal role in influencing purchasing decisions. For instance, BMW utilized 3D printing to design a lightweight roof bracket for its i8 Roadster, achieving a component that is 44% lighter and 10 times stiffer than traditional alternatives, thereby enhancing both functionality and aesthetics. Similarly, the ergonomic and visually appealing designs of wearable health devices, such as smartwatches with advanced sensors, have become key differentiators in the competitive consumer electronics market.Industrial design enables companies to enhance the user experience by addressing both form and function. Products designed with a focus on usability and visual appeal not only attract customers but also build brand reputation and market share. As businesses recognize the value of design in achieving a competitive edge, the demand for industrial design services continues to rise. This growing emphasis on aesthetics and functionality is driving innovation across industries, further propelling market growth while shaping consumer preferences

Increased Focus on Sustainable Design Practices

The growing global emphasis on sustainability has significantly impacted industrial design practices. Businesses are increasingly adopting eco-friendly materials, energy-efficient manufacturing processes, and sustainable design principles to meet consumer expectations and regulatory requirements. For instance, IKEA’s Kungsbacka kitchen cabinet is made entirely from recycled wood and plastic bottles, exemplifying how sustainable materials can be used to create durable, eco-friendly products that minimize waste. Similarly, Volvo Cars saved over 4,800 tons of CO2 emissions in 2022 by remanufacturing more than 33,000 parts, such as engines and gearboxes, demonstrating the impact of circular economy principles in industrial design.Additionally, governments and international organizations are implementing stringent regulations to promote sustainability, compelling industries to align their design and production strategies accordingly. Industrial designers play a crucial role in this transition by developing innovative solutions that balance environmental responsibility with cost efficiency. As sustainability becomes a key consideration in product development, the demand for industrial design services with a focus on green design is expected to grow significantly. These practices not only reduce environmental impact but also resonate with environmentally conscious consumers, enhancing brand loyalty and market positioning.

Rising Urbanization and Industrialization in Emerging Markets

Rapid urbanization and industrialization in emerging economies, particularly in Asia-Pacific and Latin America, are creating substantial opportunities for the industrial design market. The expansion of infrastructure, the growth of the manufacturing sector, and the rising middle-class population in these regions are driving demand for consumer goods, electronics, automobiles, and other industrial products. For instance, the rapid urbanization in India has driven increased demand for affordable consumer products, prompting companies to invest in region-specific industrial designs that cater to local preferences. Similarly, Mexico’s proximity to the U.S. has spurred investments in industrial infrastructure and design innovation, particularly in sectors like automotive and technology manufacturing.As companies seek to cater to diverse and expanding customer bases in these regions, the need for innovative product designs becomes increasingly important. Furthermore, the increasing penetration of global brands has intensified competition in these markets, prompting local businesses to adopt industrial design strategies to enhance product appeal and market presence. This trend underscores the critical role of industrial design in addressing regional preferences while contributing to market growth in emerging economies.

Market Trends

Integration of Advanced Technologies in Design Processes

The integration of cutting-edge technologies like AI, AR, and VR has transformed industrial design by enhancing efficiency and creativity. For instance, Ford uses VR to create virtual prototypes of vehicles, allowing designers to visualize and refine designs without physical models, significantly reducing development time. Similarly, Boeing employs AR glasses for complex wiring tasks, improving precision and reducing errors by 25%. These technologies enable real-time prototyping and predictive modeling, fostering collaboration across distributed teams while minimizing costs.Moreover, generative AI tools are revolutionizing design by rapidly exploring various possibilities. For example, an automotive OEM used generative AI to create 25 variations of a car dashboard design in just two hours, a process that would traditionally take weeks. This approach not only accelerates the design process but also ensures optimized performance and cost efficiency. Additionally, platforms like Gravity Sketch integrate AR/VR to allow designers to create 3D models interactively, streamlining the development process and enabling early-stage user testing.These advancements highlight how technology-driven approaches are reshaping industrial design, enabling companies to innovate faster while maintaining high standards of quality and functionality.

Growing Emphasis on Sustainable Design and Eco-Friendly Practices

Sustainable design is increasingly central to industrial innovation as businesses adapt to eco-conscious consumer demands. For instance, IKEA's Kungsbacka kitchen cabinets are made entirely from recycled wood and plastic bottles, exemplifying circular economy principles. The cabinets are designed for disassembly, allowing for easy recycling or refurbishment at the end of their lifecycle. Similarly, Jasper Morrison's cork furniture showcases the use of carbon-negative materials that capture more CO2 during production than they emit.In agriculture, Studio Roosegaarde's poetic crop lighting project uses UV lighting to enhance crop growth while reducing pesticide use by up to 50%. This sustainable intervention highlights how industrial design can address environmental challenges in diverse sectors. Companies like Airbus also leverage additive manufacturing to reduce material waste and energy consumption during production, aligning with global sustainability goals.These examples underscore the vital role of sustainable practices in reducing environmental impact while fostering innovation. By adopting eco-friendly materials and designing for longevity, industrial designers contribute significantly to a greener future.

Shift Towards User-Centric and Ergonomic Designs

User-centric design has become a cornerstone of industrial innovation, focusing on enhancing usability and comfort. For example, Herman Miller’s Aeron Chair integrates ergonomic features tailored to reduce strain during prolonged use, promoting productivity in office environments. Similarly, SurfaceID’s Venous-Light device demonstrates how user-centered healthcare designs improve both patient comfort and professional usability.In healthcare technology, user-centered design (UCD) principles have led to intuitive solutions like mobile apps that empower diabetic patients through clear data visualization and seamless integration with wearable devices. Such designs increase patient engagement by 75%, improving health outcomes significantly. Additionally, McLaren uses VR to test car ergonomics virtually before production begins, ensuring optimal user experience while minimizing costly redesigns.

Regional Customization and Localization in Design

Localization strategies are crucial for tailoring products to regional preferences. For instance, BMW’s Individual program allows customers to personalize vehicles based on cultural aesthetics and functional needs. This approach not only enhances customer satisfaction but also reduces waste by producing cars on demand. Similarly, Coca-Cola’s "Share a Coke" campaign demonstrated the importance of cultural sensitivity by customizing product packaging with popular local names-a strategy that succeeded globally but faced challenges when cultural nuances were overlooked in specific regions like Israel.In software localization, adapting interfaces for languages like Arabic ensures accessibility and relevance in diverse markets. For example, fitness applications tested across multiple regions refined their designs iteratively based on user feedback to address cultural differences effectively. Such strategies showcase how regional customization fosters stronger brand loyalty while ensuring global market penetration.By aligning product designs with local cultural values and consumer behaviors, companies can navigate competitive landscapes more effectively while building meaningful connections with their audiences.

Market Challenges

Rising Complexity and Cost of Technological Integration

The increasing adoption of advanced technologies such as artificial intelligence (AI), 3D printing, augmented reality (AR), and virtual reality (VR) has transformed industrial design practices. However, integrating these technologies into the design process poses significant challenges, particularly for small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs). The high costs associated with acquiring and maintaining these tools can be a barrier, especially for companies with limited budgets. Additionally, the need for skilled professionals to operate these technologies adds to the overall expense, further constraining resource-limited organizations.For instance, SMEs often struggle to integrate advanced technologies like AI, AR/VR, and 3D printing due to limited financial resources and technical expertise. A study highlights that SMEs face challenges such as the lack of standardization and economies of scale, which hinder their ability to adopt Industry 4.0 technologies effectively. These barriers result in operational inefficiencies and delayed returns on investment, making it difficult for smaller companies to compete with larger organizations.Moreover, the rapid pace of technological advancements requires continuous investment in research, training, and infrastructure to stay competitive. This creates a dynamic where smaller companies struggle to keep up, widening the gap between large corporations and smaller players. The complexity of adapting to ever-evolving tools also increases operational risks and delays.

Balancing Sustainability with Cost and Functionality

The growing emphasis on sustainability and eco-friendly design practices has become a critical factor in the industrial design market. While these initiatives align with consumer preferences and regulatory requirements, they often lead to higher production costs. The use of biodegradable or recycled materials, energy-efficient manufacturing methods, and sustainable packaging can increase overall expenses, making it challenging for companies to maintain competitive pricing.For instance, implementing sustainable manufacturing practices can lead to significant cost challenges. Companies adopting green design often face higher expenses due to the use of biodegradable materials or energy-efficient processes. However, innovative strategies like modular design have shown promise in reducing waste while maintaining functionality. For example, Volvo Cars saved substantial resources by remanufacturing components like engines and gearboxes, demonstrating how sustainability can be achieved without compromising product performance.Additionally, balancing sustainability with functionality and aesthetics presents a significant challenge. Companies must ensure that eco-friendly products meet performance standards without compromising on design appeal or usability. This balancing act is particularly difficult in cost-sensitive markets where consumers may prioritize affordability over sustainability. As global regulations become stricter, businesses face mounting pressure to innovate within these constraints, which can delay product development and strain resources. These factors create a challenging landscape for industrial design companies striving for long-term growth.

Market Opportunities

Expanding Demand in Emerging Markets

The rapid industrialization and urbanization in emerging economies, particularly in Asia-Pacific, Latin America, and Africa, present significant growth opportunities for the global industrial design market. Rising disposable incomes, an expanding middle-class population, and increasing consumer awareness about product quality and design are driving demand for innovative and functional products in these regions. Industries such as automotive, consumer electronics, and healthcare are witnessing robust growth, creating a substantial market for industrial design services. Additionally, the penetration of global brands in these regions is fostering competition, encouraging local businesses to invest in industrial design to enhance product appeal and differentiate themselves. By focusing on region-specific designs that cater to local preferences, companies can capitalize on this growing demand and establish a strong foothold in untapped markets. For instance, in the automotive sector, Italian startup TUC has developed a patented plug-and-play system that significantly reduces vehicle production costs while enabling extensive customization options. This innovation highlights how industrial design adapts to meet regional demands for cost-effective yet personalized products. Such advancements not only cater to local preferences but also enhance competitiveness for businesses entering emerging markets. By leveraging innovative design solutions like these, companies can unlock substantial growth opportunities.

Technological Advancements and Sustainable Design

The continuous evolution of technologies such as artificial intelligence (AI), 3D printing, and augmented reality (AR) offers vast opportunities for innovation in the industrial design market. These advancements enable designers to create more sophisticated, efficient, and user-centric products while reducing development time and costs. Furthermore, the rising emphasis on sustainability provides opportunities for companies to innovate with eco-friendly materials and energy-efficient manufacturing processes. As global consumers and regulatory bodies prioritize sustainability, businesses that align with these values are likely to gain a competitive advantage. Leveraging technological capabilities to integrate sustainability into product designs positions companies to address future market needs effectively and expand their market presence.For instance, Autodesk's generative design software uses AI to optimize designs for 3D printing by creating multiple options based on user-defined constraints. This reduces material usage and production time while maintaining functionality. Similarly, Studio Roosegaarde’s crop lighting project utilizes blue, red, and ultraviolet light to reduce pesticide use by up to 50%, showcasing how sustainable design can address environmental challenges while improving productivity. These examples illustrate how technological advancements and sustainability-focused innovations are reshaping industrial design processes, enabling businesses to stay competitive while meeting evolving consumer expectations.

Market Segmentation Analysis

By Product

The automotive segment holds a significant share in the global industrial design market, driven by the growing emphasis on innovative and aesthetically pleasing vehicle designs. Automakers are investing heavily in industrial design to enhance brand perception and improve vehicle functionality. The increasing adoption of electric vehicles (EVs) further amplifies demand as manufacturers prioritize sleek and aerodynamic designs to improve efficiency.The furniture segment is also a key contributor, with rising consumer demand for stylish and ergonomic furniture for residential and commercial purposes. Industrial designers are focusing on creating multifunctional furniture that blends aesthetics with practicality, aligning with modern living trends.The packaging segment is experiencing rapid growth due to the expanding e-commerce and retail industries. Companies are leveraging industrial design to create visually appealing and sustainable packaging solutions, catering to eco-conscious consumers and aligning with global environmental goals.

By Application

In terms of application, the transportation sector dominates the market, driven by advancements in the automotive, aerospace, and rail industries. Innovative design plays a pivotal role in improving passenger safety, comfort, and overall user experience.The consumer goods segment is another major area of application, where industrial design is crucial for developing attractive, functional, and user-friendly products. This segment spans diverse industries, including electronics, home appliances, and personal care products, where design is a key differentiator in a competitive market. The medical devices segment is witnessing significant growth as healthcare providers seek ergonomic and efficient designs that enhance usability and patient outcomes. Industrial design is critical in creating devices that are both functional and easy to operate, particularly in high-pressure environments such as hospitals and clinics.

Segments

Based on Product

• Automotive
• Furniture
• Packaging

Based on Application

• Transportation
• Consumer Goods
• Medical Devices

Based on End-User

• Automotive
• Electronics
• Healthcare
• Aerospace

Based on Region

• North America
  • U.S.
  • Canada
  • Mexico
• Europe
  • Germany
  • France
  • U.K.
  • Italy
  • Spain
  • Rest of Europe
• Asia Pacific
  • China
  • Japan
  • India
  • South Korea
  • South-east Asia
  • Rest of Asia Pacific
• Latin America
  • Brazil
  • Argentina
  • Rest of Latin America
• Middle East & Africa
  • GCC Countries
  • South Africa
  • Rest of the Middle East and Africa

Regional Analysis

North America (28%)

North America holds a substantial share of the global industrial design market, accounting for approximately 28% of the total market in 2023. The region’s dominance is attributed to its advanced manufacturing sector, widespread adoption of cutting-edge technologies, and a strong focus on innovation. The United States, in particular, is a hub for automotive, consumer electronics, and healthcare industries, which heavily rely on industrial design for competitive differentiation. Companies in the region are also early adopters of sustainable design practices, driven by stringent environmental regulations and a growing demand for eco-friendly products.

Europe (26%)

Europe follows closely, contributing around 26% to the global market. The region’s well-established automotive industry, especially in countries like Germany, France, and the United Kingdom, is a key driver. European businesses emphasize sustainability and premium aesthetics, which are integral to their design strategies. Additionally, the region’s commitment to innovation is evident in its investment in advanced technologies such as 3D printing and AI-driven design tools. The presence of leading design firms and collaborations with global brands further bolster Europe’s position in the market.

Key players

• RKS Design
• Busse Design
• Designworks
• Accenture
• BlueFocus Intelligent Communications Group Co.
• IDEO LLC
• GK Design
• Altran Technologies SA
• PDD Group Ltd
• Ziba Design

Competitive Analysis

The global industrial design market is highly competitive, with both specialized design firms and large multinational corporations contributing to its dynamic nature. Key players like IDEO LLC, RKS Design, and Designworks are recognized for their innovation-driven approaches, catering to diverse industries such as automotive, consumer electronics, and healthcare. Companies like Accenture and BlueFocus Intelligent Communications Group Co. leverage their extensive resources and expertise in digital transformation to offer integrated design solutions. Meanwhile, firms such as Altran Technologies SA and PDD Group Ltd emphasize technological integration and user-centric designs, strengthening their market positions. The presence of established players like Ziba Design and Busse Design further intensifies competition, pushing companies to innovate continuously. Collaboration with manufacturers, investment in advanced technologies, and a focus on sustainability remain critical strategies for players to differentiate themselves and capture a larger market share.

Recent Developments

• In 2024, RKS Design focused on advancing product development through emerging trends such as virtual prototyping and blockchain integration. Virtual prototyping has enabled designers to test and refine concepts in a digital realm, optimizing resources and accelerating timelines. Additionally, RKS has been leveraging blockchain technology to enhance transparency and accountability in supply chains, reflecting a commitment to ethical design practices. Notable projects include the development of an infrared surveillance camera for BAE Systems and a disruptive blood diagnostics system for Truvian, showcasing their expertise in innovative and functional product design.
• In 2024, Busse Design+Engineering introduced several innovations including new tools like SLA 3D printers and laser welding machines to enhance prototyping capabilities. The company also relaunched its website to better showcase its holistic approach to product design, UX/UI design, engineering, and prototyping. These advancements underscore Busse’s commitment to integrating cutting-edge technology into its design processes while maintaining transparency and structured creativity.
• In 2024, Accenture maintained its aggressive acquisition strategy to expand its capabilities in digital transformation and AI-driven solutions. Key acquisitions include Allitix (November 2024), specializing in Anaplan-based enterprise planning solutions, and Navisite (January 2024), which bolstered Accenture’s cloud transformation services. These moves reflect Accenture’s focus on integrating advanced technologies into industrial design processes for enhanced efficiency and scalability.
• In 2024, BlueFocus integrated generative AI into its core operations enhancing organizational design and process efficiency. This integration supports BlueFocus’ advertising and marketing services by enabling more personalized and data-driven campaigns. Additionally, the company announced an equity buyback program worth CNY 300 million in November 2024 to strengthen shareholder value amidst fluctuating market conditions.
• In January 2024, IDEO partnered with Kooth to co-design "Soluna," a mental health app for youth. This project utilized IDEO’s human-centered design approach to create a safe digital space for exploring mental well-being. The app incorporates Acceptance and Commitment Therapy (ACT) principles, demonstrating IDEO’s commitment to addressing societal challenges through innovative design solutions.
• In November 2024, PDD reported robust financial growth driven by investments in platform ecosystems and merchant support initiatives. The company emphasized improving supply chain efficiency while navigating competitive pressures in the e-commerce sector. These efforts align with PDD’s strategy of leveraging industrial design to enhance user experiences across its platforms.

Market Concentration and Characteristics 

The Global Industrial Design Market exhibits a moderately fragmented structure, characterized by the presence of numerous specialized design firms and a few large multinational corporations. Key players, including IDEO LLC, Designworks, and Accenture, dominate the market through their extensive portfolios, technological capabilities, and global reach. The market is highly competitive, with companies focusing on innovation, sustainability, and region-specific designs to differentiate themselves. Collaboration with manufacturers, adoption of advanced technologies like artificial intelligence (AI) and 3D printing, and user-centric design approaches are key characteristics of this market. Additionally, the market is influenced by evolving consumer preferences for aesthetic and functional products and increasing demand for eco-friendly designs, driving continuous innovation. Despite the competition, emerging markets and advancements in digital tools present significant growth opportunities, enabling both established players and new entrants to expand their presence.

Report Coverage

The research report offers an in-depth analysis based on Product, Application, End-User and Region. It details leading market players, providing an overview of their business, product offerings, investments, revenue streams, and key applications. Additionally, the report includes insights into the competitive environment, SWOT analysis, current market trends, as well as the primary drivers and constraints. Furthermore, it discusses various factors that have driven market expansion in recent years. The report also explores market dynamics, regulatory scenarios, and technological advancements that are shaping the industry. It assesses the impact of external factors and global economic changes on market growth. Lastly, it provides strategic recommendations for new entrants and established companies to navigate the complexities of the market.

Future Outlook

1. The integration of technologies like AI, AR, VR, and 3D printing will continue to revolutionize industrial design processes, enabling faster prototyping and greater precision in product development.
2. The increasing focus on sustainability will drive the adoption of eco-friendly materials and circular economy practices, encouraging innovative solutions that balance functionality and environmental responsibility.
3. Rapid urbanization and industrialization in Asia-Pacific, Latin America, and Africa will open new opportunities for industrial design, driven by the expanding middle-class population and rising disposable incomes.
4. The growing demand for electric and autonomous vehicles will fuel innovation in automotive design, with a focus on aerodynamics, lightweight materials, and user-centric interiors.
5. Companies will prioritize user-centric and ergonomic designs to meet consumer expectations for aesthetically appealing and functional products across various industries.
6. Organizations will invest heavily in R&D to create innovative design solutions, leveraging emerging technologies and addressing evolving market trends to maintain competitiveness.
7. The adoption of cloud-based design platforms will foster collaboration and streamline workflows, enabling global teams to work more effectively and innovate faster.
8. Regional customization will grow as companies tailor products to align with cultural preferences and local market demands, enhancing brand loyalty and market penetration.
9. Partnerships between industrial design firms and manufacturers will strengthen, promoting co-innovation and efficient integration of design into production processes.
10. The healthcare sector will emerge as a significant contributor to market growth, with rising demand for ergonomic, efficient, and user-friendly medical devices and equipment.

Technological Advancements in Design Processes

The integration of AI, 3D printing, and CAD software is streamlining industrial design workflows, enabling the creation of more sophisticated, efficient, and innovative products. These technologies reduce development time and costs, making advanced design capabilities accessible to a broader range of companies.

Growing Demand for Aesthetic and Functional Products

Industries such as automotive, consumer electronics, and healthcare are increasingly prioritizing products that combine visual appeal with enhanced usability. This trend is driving companies to invest in industrial design services to differentiate their offerings and improve customer experience.

Increased Focus on Sustainable Design Practices

Rising environmental concerns and stricter regulations are pushing businesses to adopt eco-friendly materials and sustainable design principles. Industrial designers are at the forefront of developing products that minimize environmental impact while maintaining performance and cost-effectiveness.

Rising Urbanization and Industrialization in Emerging Markets

Rapid economic growth and urbanization in regions like Asia-Pacific and Latin America are boosting demand for consumer goods, vehicles, and infrastructure, creating significant opportunities for industrial design services tailored to local preferences and needs.

Expansion of End-Use Industries

The growth of sectors such as electric vehicles, medical devices, and smart consumer electronics is increasing the need for innovative industrial design solutions that address new technical requirements and user expectations, further fueling market expansion.

Note: The depth of individual sections depends on data availability for this market. Volume, capacity, trade and other unit-based metrics are included where applicable.